The Apostle’s Creed

“I believe in God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth;

And in Jesus Christ His only Son our Lord; Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost; Born of the Virgin Mary; Suffered under Pontius Pilate; Was crucified, dead, and buried; He descended into hell; The third day He rose again from the dead; He ascended into heaven; And sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty; From thence He shall come to judge the quick and the dead.

I believe in the Holy Ghost; The Holy Catholic Church; The Communion of Saints; The forgiveness of sins; The Resurrection of the body; And the Life everlasting. Amen.”

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Belief Matters

100 Most Important Events In Church History

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What are the 100 most important events in church history? Compare your list with that compiled by Christian History magazine:

4
Fire ravages Rome. Emperor Nero blames Christians and unleashes persecution.

70
Titus destroys Jerusalem and its temple. Separation deepens between Christianity and Judaism.

about 150
Justin Martyr writes his First Apology, advancing Christian efforts to address competing philosophies.

about 156
Polycarp, an eighty-six-year-old bishop, inspires Christians to stand firm under opposition.

177
Irenaeus becomes bishop of Lyons and combats developing heresies within the Church.

about 196
Colorful and cantankerous Tertullian begins writings that earn him the reputation of being the “Father of Latin Theology.”

about 205
The gifted North African Origen begins writing. He headed a noted catechetical school in Alexandria.

251
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, publishes his influential work Unity of the Church. He was martyred in 258.

270
Antony gives away his possessions and begins life as a hermit, a key event in the development of Christian monasticism.

312
Constantine is converted after seeing a vision of the cross. He becomes a defender and advocate of the oppressed Christians.

325
The Council of Nicea addresses debates perplexing the Church and defines the doctrine of who Jesus really was.

367
Athanasius’ Easter Letter recognizes the New Testament Canon, listing the same books we have now.

385
In Milan, Bishop Ambrose defies the Empress, helping establish the precedent of Church confrontation of the state when necessary to protect Christian teaching and oppose the state.

387
Augustine of Hippo is converted. His writings became bedrock for the Middle Ages. The Confessions and City of God are still read by many.

398
John Chrysostom, the “golden tongued” preacher is made bishop of Constantinople and leads from there amidst continuing controversies.

405
Jerome completes the Latin “Vulgate” version of the bible that becomes the standard for the next one thousand years.

432
Patrick goes as a missionary to Ireland–taken there as a teenager as a slave. He returns and leads multitudes of Irish people to the Christian faith.

451
The Council of Chalcedon confirms orthodox teaching that Jesus was truly God and truly man and existed in one person.

529
Benedict of Nursia establishes his monastic order. His “rule” becomes the most influential for centuries of monasticism in the West.

563
Columba goes as a missionary to Scotland. He establishes the legendary monastic mission center at Iona.

590
Gregory becomes Pope Gregory I, known as “the Great.” His leadership significantly advances the development of the papacy and has enormous influence on Europe.

664
Synod of Whitby determines that the English church will come under the authority of Rome.

716
Boniface, the “Apostle of Germany,” sets out as a missionary to bring the gospel to pagan lands.

731
The “Venerable” Bede completes his careful and influential Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation.

732
At the Battle of Tours, Charles Martel turns back the Muslim invasion of Europe.

800
Charlemagne crowned emperor by the pope on Christmas. He advances the church, education, and culture.

863
Cyril and Methodius, Greek brothers, evangelize the Serbs. Cyril develops the Cyrillic alphabet which remains the basis for the Slavonic used in the liturgy of the Russian church.

909
A monastery is established at Cluny and becomes a center for reform. By the mid-12th century, there were over 1,000 Clunaic houses.

988
Conversion of Vladimir, Prince of Kiev, who, after examining several religions, chooses Orthodoxy to unify and guide the Russian people.

1054
The East-West Schism. Brewing for centuries, rupture finally comes to a head with the fissure that has lasted to this day.

1093
Anselm becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. A devoted monk and outstanding theologian, his Cur Deus Homo? (Why Did God Become Man?), explored the atonement.

1095
Pope Urban II launches the First Crusade. The crowd wildly shouts “God wills it!” There would be several crusades over the next centuries with many tragic results.

1115
Bernard founds the monastery at Clairvaux. He and the monastery become a major center of spiritual and political influence.

about 1150
Universities of Paris and Oxford are founded and become incubators for renaissance and reformation and precursors for modern educational patterns.

1173
Peter Waldo founds the Waldensians, a reform movement emphasizing poverty, preaching and the Bible. He and his followers are eventually condemned as heretics and the Waldensians suffer great persecution for centuries.

1206
Francis of Assisi renounces wealth and goes on to lead a band of poor friars preaching the simple life.

1215
The Fourth Lateran Council deals with heresy, reaffirms Roman Catholic doctrines and strengthens the authority of the popes.

1273
Thomas Aquinas completes work on Summa Theoligica, the theological masterpiece of the Middle Ages.

1321
Dante completes The Divine Comedy, the greatest work of Christian literature to emerge from the Middle Ages.

1378
Catherine of Siena goes to Rome to help heal the “Great Papal Schism” which had resulted in multiple popes. Partly through her influence, the papacy moves back to Rome from Avignon.

about 1380
Wycliffe is exiled from Oxford but oversees a translation of the Bible into English. He is later hailed as the “Morning star of the Reformation.”

1415
John Hus, who teaches Wycliffe’s ideas in Bohemia, is condemned and burned at the stake by the Council of Constance.

1456
Johann Gutenberg produces the first printed Bible, and his press becomes a means for dissemination new ideas, catalyzing changes in politics and theology.

1478
The Spanish Inquisition is established under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to oppose “heresy.”

1498
Savonarola, the fiery Dominican reformer of Florence, in Italy, is executed.

1512
Michelangelo completes his notable artwork on the Sistine Chapel ceiling in Rome.

1517
Martin Luther posts his ninety-five theses, a simple invitation for scholarly debate that inadvertently becomes a “hinge of history.”

1523
Zwingli leads the Swiss reformation from his base as head pastor in Zurich.

1525
The Anabaptist movement begins. This “radical reformation” insists on baptism of adult believers and the almost unheard of notion of separation of church and state.

1534
Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy makes the king, not the pope, head of the Church of England.

1536
John Calvin publishes The Institutes of the Christian Religion, the most substantial theological work of the Reformation.

1540
The Society of Jesus is approved by the Vatican. Founded by Ignatius Loyola, the Jesuit order places its services entirely at the disposal of the pope.

1545
The Council of Trent opens. Called by the Roman Catholic Church, it addresses abuses and serves the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

1549
Cranmer produces the beloved Book of Common Prayer for the Church of England.

1559
John Knox returns to Scotland to lead reformation there after a period of exile in Calvin’s Geneva.

1572
The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France witnesses the killing of tens of thousands of Protestant Huguenots by Catholics.

1608-09
Anglican preacher turned Separatist, John Smith, baptizes the first “Baptists.”

1611
Publication of the Authorized or King James translation of the Bible in the English language. Fifty-four scholars worked for four years on the project.

1620
Pilgrims coming to America sign the Mayflower Compact and commit themselves to seek the public good, uphold group solidarity and forsake self-seeking.

1628
Jan Amos Comenius is driven from his homeland in Moravia and wanders the rest of his life spreading educational reform and pleading for Christian reconciliation.

1646
The Westminster Confession is drafted in the Jerusalem Room at Westminster Abbey.

1648
George Fox founds the Society of Friends, more commonly known as “Quakers.” Seeking to live simple lives, opposed to warfare and avoiding formal worship, they had an influence far exceeding their numbers.

1662
Rembrandt completes his masterful painting the Return of the Prodigal Son.

1675
German Lutheran minister Philip Jacob Spener publishes Pia Desideria which becomes a manifesto for “Pietism.”

1678
John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress is published. It becomes second in international circulation, exceeded only by the Bible.

1685
Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel born. These two will go on to become musical giants illustrating the central place of Biblical subjects in the masterpieces of Western art.

1707
Publication of Isaac Watt’s Hymns and Spiritual Songs marks a new development in the kind of music sung in churches.

1727
Awakening at Herrnhut launches Moravian Brethren as the forerunner of modern Protestant missionary movements.

1735
Great Awakening under Jonathan Edwards stirs the American colonies with many conversions and individual returns to heartfelt faith.

1738
John Wesley’s conversion eventually leads to the founding of a branch of the Methodist Church although he had no intention of forming a separate denomination.

1780
Newspaperman Robert Raikes begins Sunday schools to reach poor and uneducated children in England. It rapidly becomes a vital international movement.

1793 William Carey sails as a missionary to India and oversees more Bible translations than had previously been produced in all Christian history.

1807
The British Parliament votes to abolish the slave trade. Its decision is owing in large part to the tireless efforts of the Christian politician William Wilberforce.

1811
The Campbells begin the Disciples of Christ, an element within what became known as the “Restoration Movement” of American Christianity.

1812
Adoniram and Ann Judson sail for India. These first missionaries to be sent from America evangelize Burma and translate the scriptures into Burmese.

1816
Richard Allen, a former slave, founds the African Methodist Episcopal Church.

1817
Elizabeth Fry begins ministry to women in prison and becomes model for social compassion and involvement.

1830
Charles G. Finney’s urban revivals begin and introduce techniques that decisively affect later mass evangelism in America.

about 1830
John Nelson Darby helps found the Plymouth Brethren, a group which spreads the dispensational view of Scriptural interpretation.

1833
John Keble’s sermon “National Apostasy” initiates the Oxford movement in England.

1854
Hudson Taylor arrives as a missionary in China. His faith work has immense impact.

1854
Philosopher Soron Kierkegaard publishes Attacks on Christendom.

1854
Charles Haddon Spurgeon becomes pastor in London and will go on the be one of the most influential pastors ever.

1855
Dwight L. Moody is converted. He goes on to become one of the most effective American evangelists.

1857
David Livingstone publishes Missionary Travels and his exploits in Africa attract world wide attention.

1865
William Booth founds the Salvation Army, vowing to bring the gospel into the streets to the most desperate and needy.

1870
Pope Pius IX proclaims the doctrine of Papal Infallibility.

1886
The Student Volunteer Movement begins as a major thrust of young people to bring the gospel to the world as missionaries.

1906
Asuza Street revival launches Pentecostalism, and paves the way for the development of the modern charismatic movement.

1910-15
The fundamentals are published and demonstrate the great divide in American Christianity known as the “Modernist-Fundamentalist” controversy.

1919
Karl Barth’s Commentary on Romans is published, effectively critiquing modernistic theology.

1921
First Christian radio broadcast over KDKA in Pittsburgh.

1934
Cameron Townsend begins the Summer Institute of Linguistics that aspires with sister organization Wycliffe Bible translators to bring the Bible to every language group of the world.

1945
Dietrich Bonhoeffer is executed by the Nazis. The German pastor is killed just days before the Allies arrive to liberate that region. His theological writings remain influential.

1948
The World Council of Churches is formed as an interdenominational body promoting Christian unity and presence in society.

1949
Billy Graham’s Los Angeles crusade thrusts the young evangelist into several decades of worldwide ministry and an impressive reputation.

1960
Charismatic renewal surges forward, crossing denominational lines and becoming more mainstream.

1962
Second Vatican Council begins, the most significant council since Trent. It will promote new attitudes and practices in Catholicism.

1963
Martin Luther King, Jr., a Baptist minister, leads a march on Washington espousing the teachings of Jesus in a civil rights movement that affects all American.

1966-76
The Chinese church grows despite the Cultural Revolution. Christianity did not die out under Communism, but experienced one of the most dramatic church growths ever.

Martin Luther – Recommended Resources

Miscellaneous

Recommended Martin Luther Documentaries

Recommended Martin Luther Movies

Recommended Martin Luther Biographies

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Short Luther Video

Science & Social Science Books That Changed The World

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Signet Classics has published a revision of Robert B. Downs Books that Changed the World, originally published by The American Library Association. Perhaps it would have been more appropriately named Books In Science and the Social Sciences That Changed the World. Downs indicates that for practical reasons he omitted books from the fields of religion, philosophy, and literature. While acknowledging the importance of these fields, he found it necessary to exclude them because of the “insuperable obstacle” it would have been to come up with a list if those were included.

So the list that follows represents those books from the fields of science and the social sciences which he believes have had “profound influence on history, economics, culture, civilization, and scientific thought, from, roughly the Renaissance down to the mid-twentieth century….[books] that have had a great and continuing impact on human thought and action, not for a single nation, but for a major segment of the world.”

  1. The Prince, by Niccolo Machiavelli
  2. Common Sense, by Thomas Paine
  3. Wealth of Nations, by Adam Smith
  4. Essay on the Principle of Population, by Thomas Malthus
  5. Civil Disobedience, by Henry David Thoreau
  6. Uncle Tom’s Cabin, by Harriet Beecher Stowe
  7. Das Kapital, by Karl Marx
  8. The Influence Of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783, by Alfred T. Mahan
  9. The Geographical Pivot of History, by Sir Halford J. Mackinder
  10. Mein Kampf, by Adolf Hitler
  11. De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, by Nicolaus Copernicus
  12. De Motu Cordis, by William Harvey
  13. Principia Mathematica, by Sir Isaac Newton
  14. Origin of the Species, by Charles Darwin
  15. The Interpretation of Dreams, by Sigmund Freud
  16. Relativity, The Special and General Theories, by Albert Einstein

Downs notes that had he included books from the fields of religion and philosophy he would have no doubt included
- The Bible (King James and Douay versions)
- The Talmud
- The Koran
- The sacred Buddhist and Hindu writings
- Confucius
- The Greek philosophers
- St. Augustine
- St. Thomas Aquinas
- Martin Luther
- Immanuel Kant
- Science and Health, by Mary Baker Eddy
- The Book of Morman, by Joseph Smith

He indicates that finalists on his unproduced list of literary works would be such names as:
- The Greek and Roman classical writers
- Dante
- Chaucer
- Rabelais
- Cervantes
- Moliere
- Shakespeare
- Milton
- Goethe
- Heine
- Dostoevsky

And, among travel narratives:
- The travel narratives of Marco Polo
- Christopher Columbus letter of 1493
- Letters of Amerigo Vespucci
- Principall Navigations, Voiages, Traffliques and Discoveries of the English Nation, by Richard Hakluyt
- Pilgrimes, by Samuel Purchas’
- Around the World in Eighty Days, by Jules Verne
- One World, by Wendell Willkie

Downs’ list is not intended to be a list of “best books” or “great books”, but a list of influential books. As such it is helpful for the historian to think about why these books were so impactful.

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RELATED

THE NICENE CREED

The Nicene Creed is a statement of Christian faith established in 325 AD by the bishops of the church. It was brought to light in order to settle the Arian controversy between members of the church over the nature, essence, substance equal to that of the Father, person, and eternal attributes of Christ.[1] This document is extremely important for Christians to, not only know about, but to learn and understand. This document contains key information about Christ, which are foundational to faith in Christ.
Constantine, the Roman emperor in 325 AD, called for a council in order to settle the Arian controversy. Arius and his followers believed that, “There was once when Christ was not.”[2] He said that when scripture speaks of Christ as the “begotten son” it implies that Christ was created by the Father at some time. Arians claimed that because of this fact, Christ was not the same substance as the Father, but was the highest of all God’s creations. Bishop Alexander and St. Athanasius were convinced that this belief was complete heresy and would lead to the destruction of Christianities salvific message. Ferguson says “An overwhelming majority of the bishops did not agree with Arius, but it was harder for them to agree on a positive statement of doctrine.”[3] The most important addition to the creed was the Greek word homoousios, meaning “of the same substance”. This affirmed that the Son of God was like the Father “in every way,” and did not derive from any other substance than that of the Father Himself, as explained by a man named Eusebius. The adoption of this word eliminated the Arian teaching. The members of the council found it necessary to use this word, homoousios which was not found in scripture, in order to stop the Arians from interpreting Biblical ideas falsely. The main theological errors of the Arians that the Nicene Creed refuted were (1) that “There was once when he was not” or “He came to be from nothing” and (2) that the Son of God is “created,” or “alterable,” or “mutable.” [4]
The council at Nicaea was significant because it was the first universal council. Nearly three hundred bishops gathered to discuss this controversy and establish a creed to bring unity and agreement in the church.[5] This council was different than most because the emperor, Constantine, was involved. The age of persecution was over and now the head of political affairs wanted to be involved in Christian religion. The alliance between church and state was set when Constantine stepped in and would remain for twelve to fourteen centuries. The creed of Nicaea was not only a confession of faith but was also a test of fellowship.
In our modern times we still struggle with disagreement in our churches over the nature of Christ as well. Many religions of the present age call themselves “Christian” as they did back then; yet do not believe in the teachings of Christ. Christians need to stand up for the convictions they hold instead of “tolerating” many different beliefs. Our nation has come to believe that we should accept contrasting views regardless of their validity. The more tolerant we become, the further away we get from the truth. We begin to shy away from controversial theologies and philosophies because we don’t want to quarrel. Because of this Christians don’t even know what to believe, or why they believe anything. We may be fighting slightly different battles today, but a lot of the battles we face hold just as much importance in the salvific message of the Bible as the Arian controversy. Some of the scariest beliefs today are that truth is relative and there is no standard; there are many ways to heaven; we should not push our religion on anyone else; and also that each person is a “priesthood” and can interpret scripture in their own way without regard to the church fathers or history. We need to save the souls of the people who are falling into the trap of this myth. We need to stand against the world and not worry about the persecutions we might come into contact with because of our stance. Our church fathers have shown us that it is possible to stand for our values and get results. The battle over Arianism was not easy to win, but it was possible with the help of God.[6] The most important thing is that we save souls from the furies of Hell.
It is important to learn about and understand events such as the Council of Nicaea. Christians should learn the Nicene Creed. It is foundational to the Christian religion. It brought out the theological concepts found in the Bible of who Christ said he was in a more understandable and definite way than ever before. The wording used in the creed could not easily be twisted to mean anything other than what it was intended to mean. These beliefs established in the creed are foundational to the salvific message. Without believing in Christ as God, of the same essence as the Father, eternal, and creator, along with other characteristics mentioned in the creed, one cannot be saved. The statements in the Creed are derived from the theologies found in the Bible.
The reason the creed was established was bring agreement in the church as to what exactly the nature of Christ was. It was extremely important to word it so that one could not misinterpret the nature of Christ. Christ is the center point of salvation. Without understanding who he was, Christians have no foundation for their beliefs and, more importantly, no salvation. This is why it is important for Christians to know the creed, understand where it came from and why it is correct theology. This battle has been fought before. Others have already determined the reason this is important and we must learn from their study of this subject.
[1] Kevin Knight, “Arianism,” New Advent, 2008, www.newadvent.org/cathen/01707c.htm. (accessed June 3, 2008).
[2] Everett Ferguson, Church History Volume One (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 193.
[3] Ibid, 194.
[4] Ibid, 195-196.
[5] Rusch, William G, The Trinitarian Covtroversy, trans. William G. Rusch (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980), 49.
[6] Taken from my answers on Dr. Phillip Calvert’s Take Home Exam 1, Spring 2008

Athanasius Essay

In Cicero’s work entitled On Duties, he names four cardinal virtues that he believes are to be kept above all others. These virtues are: wisdom, justice, courage, and seemliness. He defines wisdom as the learning of truth. He says that it is the “knowledge of everything divine and human.” He holds it in such high regard as to say that there is nothing more “desirable,” “distinguished,” or “worthy of a man.” He believes that everyone should pursue it. Justice, he believes, is the most important of all the virtues. Under this virtue, he speaks of social justice. This, to him, means that no man should harm another unless he has been provoked by injustice. He then goes on to describe justice as the keeping of faith and liberality. He adds that justice defies national boundaries, meaning justice must be extended to aliens and passing travelers in one’s country and not just the citizens of the country. Justice should be practiced by all of mankind toward one another. Courage is defined as greatness of spirit, and seemliness is also known as temperance or moderation.
The early church fathers exemplified Cicero’s four virtues in their lives and their deaths. They were committed to the spread of the Gospel and to stopping heresy. They were very knowledgable of Christian truths and the words spoken by Jesus Christ and the apostles. They meditated on these truths daily to the point where the Gospel was ingrained in their very being. Every breath they took was to the glory of God, and they never backed down from His Word, especially in the face of opposition. They were committed to excellent Christian living, which included justice and moderation. Courage was definitely easy to find in their lives as many of them were martyred for their faith. They stood bold in defense of Jesus Christ and willingly lost their lives for what they knew was the truth. Even those who were not martyred underwent severe persecution. Some were tortured, and others, such as Athanasius, were excommunicated a number of times.
Athanasius lived in Alexandria, Egypt, which at the time was the chief center of learning in the Roman Empire. He was noticed as a young boy by his bishop to have great potential in the Church. One day, the bishop looked out and noticed boys playing together. They were playing “church,” and Athanasius was performing baptisms. When Alexander asked him what exactly he said, it was decided that the young boy had actually performed legitimate baptisms! He grew up under the wing of Bishop Alexander, and when he died, Athanasius took over as Bishop of Alexandria. He went to school in Alexandria, which, as previously stated, had the best education in the empire. He learned not only the fundamental truths of Christianity but also all the other arts that were held in high esteem at the time. In other words, he was well-rounded in his education.
In his youth, a man named Arius broke off from the orthodox church and started preaching Jesus as a created being. Athanasius vehemently opposed this idea and fought long and hard against it. Emperor Constantine ordered a Council to come together at Nicaea to work out some sort of understanding among the Christians. Athanasius was the chief spokesman, and ultimately, the majority of attendants at the council agreed with his view. Thus, they wrote the Nicaean Creed, stating that Jesus Christ was not a created being but was in fact God come in the flesh. Some years later, after Rome acquired a new emperor, there was still unrest among the Arians and the rest of the Christians. The Arians still held to the belief that Jesus was created. Unfortunately for Athanasius, the new emperor sided with the Arians, and because of the former’s neverending arguments against this idea, he was banished from Alexandria. In fact, through the course of his life, Athanasius was banished five times, being called a “trouble-maker.” Nevertheless, he continued to voice his disagreement with this skewed version of Christianity.
As the Bishop of Alexandria, he was to send out an Easter letter every year, telling all the bishops when the exact date for Easter was that year. In these letters he was sure to include his arguments for Christ’s divinity. Because of his unwavering faith and relentless criticism of Arianism and other incorrect ideologies, the phrase “Athanasius contra mundum” or “Athanasius against the world” was coined. Certainly Athanasius was a man of great courage. He stood firm in his beliefs even when it meant being excommunicated for a fifth time. The persecution against him could have been much worse, considering what the earlier Church fathers went through. Even if he had been persecuted in a more violent way, we can be sure that he still would have stood his ground, and that would have given him even more confidence to stand up for the truth.
As stated, Arianism was not the only thing Athanasius openly fought against. His many writings include: On the Incarnation, Against the Heathen, Life of St. Anthony, Love and Self-Control, and On Sickness and Health, to name a few. On the Incarnation basically refutes the arguments of all of the various sects and religions of his time regarding Christ’s divinity, death, and resurrection. He explains how Jesus, as God, had to come in the flesh and literally die to save us sinful humans. There was no other way for our salvation. He refutes the Jews who are still waiting for the Messiah, saying that “no longer…is prophet raised up nor vision revealed among them” because Jesus Christ fulfilled the previous prophecies, thus ending the need for any more. In his other works, he writes on the high virtue of Christian living, the extreme courage of the martyrs, and God’s grace.Athanasius and the rest of the Church fathers really exemplified Cicero’s four virtues of wisdom, justice, courage, and moderation. Cicero held wisdom in high regard, as it is also held high in the Bible. The book of Proverbs begins with thoughts on the subject of wisdom. It says, “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and instruction” (Proverbs 1:7, NKJV). The Church fathers were highly educated, especially in the Biblical texts and words of Jesus and the apostles. They lived their lives dedicated to the spread of the Gospel. They were strong and courageous in the face of death and all danger. They stood their ground and never once backed down from what they knew to be the truth. They knew that the Word is lifesaving, and shying away from it just once could cost an unbelieving listener his life. Athanasius especially stood out among these brave men and women as he fought hard against Arianism. Though he was exiled, he continued to preach the Gospel to everyone who would hear.

Essay

Essay on the Byzantium Empire. There is a debt we and all of history really owe to Byzantium. Why? Because, they may have not changed the world as much as other empires, like the Roman, and Arab empires, it can be easy to think they did nothing for it. Rather their contribution to the world was that they protected it. Though when I say world I of course mean our European civilization, Byzantium was the protective shield for Europe for a thousand years. Well if that is so why don’t we hear about it more often? I mean think about it, growing up how much did you learn about these peoples? If you were an acute student you might remember that the city was built on Constantine. If you know any more names it would probably be Justinian the Great. Beside that you would probably have to have studied it on your own or have taken the church and empires class to learn any thing more. The reason we don’t remember it as much is one; they didn’t change the world and two; they really don’t have anything to do with our history. Think the Chinese dynasties though they changed their world there so far away we forget about them. Then there’s the Aztec’s though they are very close to us they didn’t change the world so we also forget about them. What I mean by change is do any accomplishments of those civilizations last to affect us to day. In science, art, philosophy, new discoveries, famous rulers, and warfare for greatness in any of these areas or others not named the Byzantium Greeks can’t take credit. They did not change world in that sense, but you might say they changed by persevering it, but I think it describes them better if you say that they protected Europe. Protect Europe, how can you say that when Europe was overrun by barbarians? Yes, and the word barbarians is the key, The Franks may have conquered France, or the Goths Spain, but think who really conquered whom? The languages Europeans speak come from Latin, The God they worshiped wasn’t theirs, but one that was in Europe when they got there. In short though Europe was overrun the ideas of the Roman Empire were able to live on because they were bigger then those of the barbarians. Then who were the Byzantines fighting. To list the major ones; first the Persian, then the Arabs, and last the Turks. These were peoples that had culture and a God, and a way of life that swallowed up all other s that they overran. The closest Western Europe came to facing such a people was when the beat a Mongols who were far from home and tired, and the moors at Tours who also had some of the same problems. The rest were stopped by Byzantium. It was said by some historians that the reason the eastern empire remained in tact was that unlike the western their recourses were protected behind their capitol. Such a statement is hardly historical. In the third century the Persian empire a rose again to fight the Romans and in some cases beat them. From day one of the existence of Byzantium they had to fight these sophisticated peoples. Who had direct access to Anatolia, which was the main supplier of money for the empire. I would say men, except that in the early days of Byzantium thy made the mistake of relying on mercenaries to fight their wars. Later empires would correct this. The people who populated this empire called themselves Romans, but after the first two hundred years the were really Greeks, in language, law, culture, and religion. They also upheld what the Greeks how had come before them had done. That is protected the continent from eastern invaders. The Persians, traditional rivals of the Greeks, came very close came to conquering one of the strongest military cities this world has ever seen, Constantinople. This city had no weakness, if given the right a mount of men, and very had to break into in any situation. Anyway the Persians were beaten, only to be replaced by a foe just as dangerous. The Muslim, Arabs. Quickly they arose but long and strong they remained for two hundred years they were a thorn in the side of the empire. People always act as if were the superior empire. Well in much area’s they were except as far as military goes. Yes they were able to get to the gates of Constantinople several times, but they never breached the walls. In time the Arabs would begin to come apart, but Byzantium remained strong, and once again became the most powerful empire on the earth. Then came the Turks, it is quite easy to blame poor leadership for the rise of the Ottomans, but there had always been weak emperors, who nearly lost the empire. Rather full credit must be given to the Turks for their endurance to be able to survive a near wipe out by Tamerlane. Byzantium would also barley survive being knifed in the back, but they remained just strong enough to hold off the Turks a little longer. In one of the defining moments of history, with only the city left under their control the Byzantium empire fell, and the gate that had protected Europe for a thousand years had been broken. All empires fall, some quickly, a few last for many years. I mentioned only a few of the foes of Byzantium, but they were many, more perhaps then any other empire, had they fallen to any one of these a weak Europe would have been extremely vulnerable to being conquered, and changing our lives today dramatically. They held on however, when everything was against them they would always manage to find a way to prevail. When as last they did fall, it was a stronger and growing Europe that the Turks now had to face, one that though it lost the Balkans, was able to defeat them at Lapanto and Vienna, twice. The Ottoman Empire had two hundred years of Glory, and then began to fall, Byzantium had a thousand. We today are the recipients of their blood that they shed. Christendom and all of western civilization owe a dept to the men and woman Byzantium.

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