According to the Talmud (Abodah Zarah, 10), the following exhange took place between Marcus Aurelius (son-in-law of Antoninus Pius) and Rabbi Judah I;
Antoninus, the Emperor, onse said to Rabbi Judah I: “Two things I wish the Senate to do for me: to elect my son, Annias Verus Codemus, as my successor, and to make Tiberias a free city so that students of the Torah may be released from taxes. I know, however, that they will grant me only one of these two favors.”
The Rabbi thereupon had one man climb on the other’s shoulders, and the man above was handed a dove. The then said to his royal friend: “Command the man below to command the man above to release the dove.”
Antoninus then understood the Rabbi’s counsel. He was to ask the Senate to ratify the election of Codemus, and Codemus, when Emperor, would make Tiberias free.
The Emperor then said: “The patricians torment me. What shall I do?”
The Rabbi led him to a garden and pulled out a plant. The following day he pulled another. Antoninus then understood. He should rid himself of his adversaries one by one, and not engage in quarrel with them all at one time.
Antoninus was accustomed also to send to the Rabbi golden coin in sacks of wheat, with some wheat at the top of each sack. Rabbi Judah informed him that he had no need for gold, but the Emperor said: “My successors will doubtless demand much gold from your successors. Hence, in time it will all be returned to its source.”
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Paradise and Gehenna According to the Talmud and Midrash
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What are the 100 most important events in church history? Compare your list with that compiled by Christian History magazine:
4
Fire ravages Rome. Emperor Nero blames Christians and unleashes persecution.
70
Titus destroys Jerusalem and its temple. Separation deepens between Christianity and Judaism.
about 150
Justin Martyr writes his First Apology, advancing Christian efforts to address competing philosophies.
about 156
Polycarp, an eighty-six-year-old bishop, inspires Christians to stand firm under opposition.
177
Irenaeus becomes bishop of Lyons and combats developing heresies within the Church.
about 196
Colorful and cantankerous Tertullian begins writings that earn him the reputation of being the “Father of Latin Theology.”
about 205
The gifted North African Origen begins writing. He headed a noted catechetical school in Alexandria.
251
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, publishes his influential work Unity of the Church. He was martyred in 258.
270
Antony gives away his possessions and begins life as a hermit, a key event in the development of Christian monasticism.
312
Constantine is converted after seeing a vision of the cross. He becomes a defender and advocate of the oppressed Christians.
325
The Council of Nicea addresses debates perplexing the Church and defines the doctrine of who Jesus really was.
367
Athanasius’ Easter Letter recognizes the New Testament Canon, listing the same books we have now.
385
In Milan, Bishop Ambrose defies the Empress, helping establish the precedent of Church confrontation of the state when necessary to protect Christian teaching and oppose the state.
387
Augustine of Hippo is converted. His writings became bedrock for the Middle Ages. The Confessions and City of God are still read by many.
398
John Chrysostom, the “golden tongued” preacher is made bishop of Constantinople and leads from there amidst continuing controversies.
405
Jerome completes the Latin “Vulgate” version of the bible that becomes the standard for the next one thousand years.
432
Patrick goes as a missionary to Ireland–taken there as a teenager as a slave. He returns and leads multitudes of Irish people to the Christian faith.
451
The Council of Chalcedon confirms orthodox teaching that Jesus was truly God and truly man and existed in one person.
529
Benedict of Nursia establishes his monastic order. His “rule” becomes the most influential for centuries of monasticism in the West.
563
Columba goes as a missionary to Scotland. He establishes the legendary monastic mission center at Iona.
590
Gregory becomes Pope Gregory I, known as “the Great.” His leadership significantly advances the development of the papacy and has enormous influence on Europe.
664
Synod of Whitby determines that the English church will come under the authority of Rome.
716
Boniface, the “Apostle of Germany,” sets out as a missionary to bring the gospel to pagan lands.
731
The “Venerable” Bede completes his careful and influential Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation.
732
At the Battle of Tours, Charles Martel turns back the Muslim invasion of Europe.
800
Charlemagne crowned emperor by the pope on Christmas. He advances the church, education, and culture.
863
Cyril and Methodius, Greek brothers, evangelize the Serbs. Cyril develops the Cyrillic alphabet which remains the basis for the Slavonic used in the liturgy of the Russian church.
909
A monastery is established at Cluny and becomes a center for reform. By the mid-12th century, there were over 1,000 Clunaic houses.
988
Conversion of Vladimir, Prince of Kiev, who, after examining several religions, chooses Orthodoxy to unify and guide the Russian people.
1054
The East-West Schism. Brewing for centuries, rupture finally comes to a head with the fissure that has lasted to this day.
1093
Anselm becomes Archbishop of Canterbury. A devoted monk and outstanding theologian, his Cur Deus Homo? (Why Did God Become Man?), explored the atonement.
1095
Pope Urban II launches the First Crusade. The crowd wildly shouts “God wills it!” There would be several crusades over the next centuries with many tragic results.
1115
Bernard founds the monastery at Clairvaux. He and the monastery become a major center of spiritual and political influence.
about 1150
Universities of Paris and Oxford are founded and become incubators for renaissance and reformation and precursors for modern educational patterns.
1173
Peter Waldo founds the Waldensians, a reform movement emphasizing poverty, preaching and the Bible. He and his followers are eventually condemned as heretics and the Waldensians suffer great persecution for centuries.
1206
Francis of Assisi renounces wealth and goes on to lead a band of poor friars preaching the simple life.
1215
The Fourth Lateran Council deals with heresy, reaffirms Roman Catholic doctrines and strengthens the authority of the popes.
1273
Thomas Aquinas completes work on Summa Theoligica, the theological masterpiece of the Middle Ages.
1321
Dante completes The Divine Comedy, the greatest work of Christian literature to emerge from the Middle Ages.
1378
Catherine of Siena goes to Rome to help heal the “Great Papal Schism” which had resulted in multiple popes. Partly through her influence, the papacy moves back to Rome from Avignon.
about 1380
Wycliffe is exiled from Oxford but oversees a translation of the Bible into English. He is later hailed as the “Morning star of the Reformation.”
1415
John Hus, who teaches Wycliffe’s ideas in Bohemia, is condemned and burned at the stake by the Council of Constance.
1456
Johann Gutenberg produces the first printed Bible, and his press becomes a means for dissemination new ideas, catalyzing changes in politics and theology.
1478
The Spanish Inquisition is established under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella to oppose “heresy.”
1498
Savonarola, the fiery Dominican reformer of Florence, in Italy, is executed.
1512
Michelangelo completes his notable artwork on the Sistine Chapel ceiling in Rome.
1517
Martin Luther posts his ninety-five theses, a simple invitation for scholarly debate that inadvertently becomes a “hinge of history.”
1523
Zwingli leads the Swiss reformation from his base as head pastor in Zurich.
1525
The Anabaptist movement begins. This “radical reformation” insists on baptism of adult believers and the almost unheard of notion of separation of church and state.
1534
Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy makes the king, not the pope, head of the Church of England.
1536
John Calvin publishes The Institutes of the Christian Religion, the most substantial theological work of the Reformation.
1540
The Society of Jesus is approved by the Vatican. Founded by Ignatius Loyola, the Jesuit order places its services entirely at the disposal of the pope.
1545
The Council of Trent opens. Called by the Roman Catholic Church, it addresses abuses and serves the Catholic Counter-Reformation.
1549
Cranmer produces the beloved Book of Common Prayer for the Church of England.
1559
John Knox returns to Scotland to lead reformation there after a period of exile in Calvin’s Geneva.
1572
The Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France witnesses the killing of tens of thousands of Protestant Huguenots by Catholics.
1608-09
Anglican preacher turned Separatist, John Smith, baptizes the first “Baptists.”
1611
Publication of the Authorized or King James translation of the Bible in the English language. Fifty-four scholars worked for four years on the project.
1620
Pilgrims coming to America sign the Mayflower Compact and commit themselves to seek the public good, uphold group solidarity and forsake self-seeking.
1628
Jan Amos Comenius is driven from his homeland in Moravia and wanders the rest of his life spreading educational reform and pleading for Christian reconciliation.
1646
The Westminster Confession is drafted in the Jerusalem Room at Westminster Abbey.
1648
George Fox founds the Society of Friends, more commonly known as “Quakers.” Seeking to live simple lives, opposed to warfare and avoiding formal worship, they had an influence far exceeding their numbers.
1662
Rembrandt completes his masterful painting the Return of the Prodigal Son.
1675
German Lutheran minister Philip Jacob Spener publishes Pia Desideria which becomes a manifesto for “Pietism.”
1678
John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress is published. It becomes second in international circulation, exceeded only by the Bible.
1685
Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel born. These two will go on to become musical giants illustrating the central place of Biblical subjects in the masterpieces of Western art.
1707
Publication of Isaac Watt’s Hymns and Spiritual Songs marks a new development in the kind of music sung in churches.
1727
Awakening at Herrnhut launches Moravian Brethren as the forerunner of modern Protestant missionary movements.
1735
Great Awakening under Jonathan Edwards stirs the American colonies with many conversions and individual returns to heartfelt faith.
1738
John Wesley’s conversion eventually leads to the founding of a branch of the Methodist Church although he had no intention of forming a separate denomination.
1780
Newspaperman Robert Raikes begins Sunday schools to reach poor and uneducated children in England. It rapidly becomes a vital international movement.
1793 William Carey sails as a missionary to India and oversees more Bible translations than had previously been produced in all Christian history.
1807
The British Parliament votes to abolish the slave trade. Its decision is owing in large part to the tireless efforts of the Christian politician William Wilberforce.
1811
The Campbells begin the Disciples of Christ, an element within what became known as the “Restoration Movement” of American Christianity.
1812
Adoniram and Ann Judson sail for India. These first missionaries to be sent from America evangelize Burma and translate the scriptures into Burmese.
1816
Richard Allen, a former slave, founds the African Methodist Episcopal Church.
1817
Elizabeth Fry begins ministry to women in prison and becomes model for social compassion and involvement.
1830
Charles G. Finney’s urban revivals begin and introduce techniques that decisively affect later mass evangelism in America.
about 1830
John Nelson Darby helps found the Plymouth Brethren, a group which spreads the dispensational view of Scriptural interpretation.
1833
John Keble’s sermon “National Apostasy” initiates the Oxford movement in England.
1854
Hudson Taylor arrives as a missionary in China. His faith work has immense impact.
1854
Philosopher Soron Kierkegaard publishes Attacks on Christendom.
1854
Charles Haddon Spurgeon becomes pastor in London and will go on the be one of the most influential pastors ever.
1855
Dwight L. Moody is converted. He goes on to become one of the most effective American evangelists.
1857
David Livingstone publishes Missionary Travels and his exploits in Africa attract world wide attention.
1865
William Booth founds the Salvation Army, vowing to bring the gospel into the streets to the most desperate and needy.
1870
Pope Pius IX proclaims the doctrine of Papal Infallibility.
1886
The Student Volunteer Movement begins as a major thrust of young people to bring the gospel to the world as missionaries.
1906
Asuza Street revival launches Pentecostalism, and paves the way for the development of the modern charismatic movement.
1910-15
The fundamentals are published and demonstrate the great divide in American Christianity known as the “Modernist-Fundamentalist” controversy.
1919
Karl Barth’s Commentary on Romans is published, effectively critiquing modernistic theology.
1921
First Christian radio broadcast over KDKA in Pittsburgh.
1934
Cameron Townsend begins the Summer Institute of Linguistics that aspires with sister organization Wycliffe Bible translators to bring the Bible to every language group of the world.
1945
Dietrich Bonhoeffer is executed by the Nazis. The German pastor is killed just days before the Allies arrive to liberate that region. His theological writings remain influential.
1948
The World Council of Churches is formed as an interdenominational body promoting Christian unity and presence in society.
1949
Billy Graham’s Los Angeles crusade thrusts the young evangelist into several decades of worldwide ministry and an impressive reputation.
1960
Charismatic renewal surges forward, crossing denominational lines and becoming more mainstream.
1962
Second Vatican Council begins, the most significant council since Trent. It will promote new attitudes and practices in Catholicism.
1963
Martin Luther King, Jr., a Baptist minister, leads a march on Washington espousing the teachings of Jesus in a civil rights movement that affects all American.
1966-76
The Chinese church grows despite the Cultural Revolution. Christianity did not die out under Communism, but experienced one of the most dramatic church growths ever.
I highly recommend James S. Jeffers’ book The Greco-Roman World of the New Testament Era: Exploring the Background of Early Christianity. It is both informative and enjoyable. In his chapter on “Life and Death in the First Century” he recommends the following books for further reading:
Labor and the Economy
- The Social Context of Paul’s Ministry: Tentmaking and Apostleship, by Ronald F. Hock
Leisure and Games
- Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games, by Roland Auguet
Travel
- Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World, by Lionel Casson
- Travel in the Ancient World, by Lionel Casson
- The Book of Acts in Its Graeco-Roman Setting, edited by David W. J. gill and Conrad Gempf
- The Cities of St. Paul: Their Influece on His Life and Thought, by William Ramsay
Dining
- Roman Cookery, by John Edwards
- Rome: Its People, Life and Customs, by Ugo Enrico Paoli
The Genesius medallion is a special award given by stage performers to stage performers. Originally, it was presented exclusively to actors (male and female) who had made a significant contribution to their craft. Today, the medallion continues to have particular significance among all Christian stage artists who use their gifts to express both artistic excellence and ministerial effectiveness.
The tradition originated in the fourth century AD with a young man named Genesius. He was an accomplished stage actor and comedian during the reign of the Roman Emperor Diocletian. A lover of the Arts and a hater of Christians, the emperor enjoyed watching plays that ridiculed all things Christian. When he commissioned a new play on the stoning of Stephen, Genesius was hired to write, direct and produce it. The writing of the play, however, would change Genesius forever.
In researching the martyrdom of Stephen, Genesius discovered how a person accepts Christ as Savior and gets baptized into the church. On opening night, friends of the normally fun-loving prankster Genesius found him backstage writhing on the floor. When asked what ailed him, he is said to have replied, “A great weight is upon me.” As the play began, he came onstage in terrible agony. Acting the role of the martyr Stephen, he deviated from the script and began exclaiming to the other actors onstage, “I am resolved to die as a Christian. I pray that God may receive me in this day of my death as one who seeks His salvation by turning away from sin and superstition.” Then, in a way his fellow actors had never seen him behave, Genesius stood upright and addressed not just the spectators but Diocletian himself.
All his pain vanished as he confidently spoke: “All my life I have reviled and detested Christianity and, like you, have sought to ridicule and defile the beliefs of the Church and the people who follow them.” In agreement, and seemingly pleased with such a passionate portrayal, the emperor smiled and began to clap, but Genesius raised a hand to silence him. “I therefore desire to receive the grace of Jesus Christ and to be born again, that I may be delivered from my sins.”
Trying to get back to the script, one of the actors playing a priest began to pour the baptismal water over Genesius. As rehearsed, he began spilling it clumsily and pouring it around in an irreverent manner, but Genesius humbly requested that he conduct the sacrament correctly. Then Genesius faced the emperor.
Having waited for a joke that was clearly not coming, Diocletian stood to stop the play. Genesius, however, began weeping and, through his tears, told the emperor that he had seen a vision of angels bearing a book with all of Genesius’ sins inscribed and that the angels then plunged the book into the water of his baptism. At that moment, he pleaded for the emperor and all present to believe with him that Jesus Christ was the only true Lord and that only through Him could they have forgiveness from their sins and receive eternal life.
The emperor, now finding Genesius to be in earnest, was furious and ordered that he be beaten. As several soldiers descended upon him, Genesius cried out that he would cling to Jesus even if it meant dying a thousand deaths.
After a brutal beating and a cruel stay in prison, Genesius was executed. At his beheading, he is said to have cried, “Bitterly do I regret that I once detested His holy name and came so late to His service!”
The medallion that bears his name and likeness shows Genesius with a cross (sometimes a scepter representing the reign of God) on his right and the comedy/tragedy masks on his left. Traditionally, the medallion can only be given by someone who has already received one.
(Author unknown)
The time from about A.D. 500 to 1400, which is known as the Middle Age, was influenced by some important men. Boethius, an Italian statesman, philosopher, and theologian, was one of those. Although the name of Boethius is not very popular today, he was very well known in the Middle Age. The Consolation of Philosophy and the Theological Tractates as well as his commentaries and translations of logical writings by Aristotle, are Boethius’ most significant contributions to the initiation and development of thought in the Middle Age.
Boethius was born in the year 480 in Rome, Italy. Actually, his real name is Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius. The last name indicates that he belonged to the great Anicii family. His father, a consul in Italy, died when Boethius was still very young. That, however, brought him into an even better family, as Symmachus adopted him. This family was considered as one of the richest and most illustrious families in the Roman Empire. Symmachus was the head of the Senate and a pillar of the Catholic Church at that time. He became the personal guard of Boethius. Later Boethius even became his son in law, when he married the daughter of Symmachus. Growing up in the household of Symmachus he gained an excellent education. He was taught in Greek, in Latin, philosophy, and theology. The Greek studies had a big impact on Boethius. Later in his life he had one of the biggest private libraries of that time. He had a passion for learning. As his father was the Roman consul in 487, he also became consul in 510 at the age of 30. His sons became consuls as well, when they were still children, seen as a reward for Boethius.
Even though Boethius’ main writing deals with philosophy, his writings can be divided into four major groups: the mathematic writings, whereas music, astronomy, arithmetic, and also geometry were included in this group (Quadrivium), translations from Greek into Latin and commentaries on logic, theological works, and the earlier mentioned Consolation of Philosophy. Through his early studies Boethius became a magister oficiorum, which was one of the highest state offices in the ancient west. The politics brought Boethius big success in a very short time. However, they made him fall as well in a very short time, as he was involved in the Roman Senate.
The Roman senator Albinus was accused of treason against the ruling east Gothic king Theodoric. As a consequence, the entire senate was charged of treason. Apparently, Boethius tried to protect the senate and put himself in charge of this accuse. During the trial he lost the support from the senate and got in charge of the Gothic King Theodoric.
Finally, Boethius was put to death charged of treason in a trial, which was not worthy to be called one, for he did not have the chance to defend himself. Before he received his penalty he was imprisoned for a long time. Obviously, he had the time and the material to write, because it was in his imprisonment time that he penned his greatest work; the Consolatio Philosophiae (Consolation of Philosophy). This work had a huge influence in the following years and decades and became one of the most read writings in the Middle Ages. Eventually, Boethius had to die. There are not a lot of details known about his death. Symmachus was executed with Boethius at the same time. Their deaths were seen as martyrdom for Christendom and consequently Boethius was recognized as a saint by the Roman Catholic Church later. After his death he became more and more famous.
Rightly, Boethius was acknowledged as the first scholar, since he also wrote on doctrines of the Catholic Church. He was also considered to be the founder of the Middle Age, for his influence was growing incredible during this time. Boethius authored a number of works, which explains why he had such a huge influence. Together with Aristotle and Augustine, Boethius was probably most influencing in Europe. The majority of the people did not know Greek in that time. Thus, even his translations of Greek works written by Aristotle and Porphyry were very significant for scholasticism. However, the most influencing writing is the Consolation of Philosophy. A lot of scholars referred to this work and used it for their own works.
Even though other writings of Boethius became less and less important in the beginning of the second millennium, they were still studied and regarded very well in the earlier Middle Age. They helped establishing twelfth-century thinking. The Consolation, however, enjoyed a longer acceptance in universities and schools even after 1200. This work was to read and study carefully for every scholar. The influence of it was evident throughout the Renaissance and early modernity.
Especially in England and Great Britain Boethius Consolation of Philosophy seemed to have a good reputation among the nation. King Alfred, Queen Elizabeth, and Geoffrey Chaucer translated the Consolation into English, because they were convinced of the significance of this work for everyone. They wanted the English nation to profit from this great work.
Helen M. Barrett tried to explain why his works had such a huge influence especially in the Middle Ages and clarified it best with this statement: “In those troubled centuries, the Dark and Middle Ages, during which the Consolation was most widely read, there were often periods when over great areas chaos and brute force prevailed rather than the ordered ways of civilized life. There must have been, many then to whom the questions which Boethius raised and tried to answer were of no mere academic interest, but came home with the poignancy of direct personal application.” (Barrett, Boethius – Some Aspects of his Times and Work)
The name and person of Boethius underwent great popularity and admiration throughout the Middle Age. However, he lost a lot of his popularity. There is just a minority of people today, who would know about him and his contribution to the process of humanity.
